Naveed Safdar

For Loops and While Loops 1. For Loops Purpose: Used to iterate over a sequence (like a list, string, tuple, range, etc.) Syntax: for variable in iterable: # code block Example 1: Looping through a list fruits = [“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”] for fruit in fruits: print(fruit) Output: apple banana cherry Example 2: Using range() for … Read more

Defining and calling functions What Are Functions? A function is a block of reusable code that performs a specific task. You define functions to avoid repeating code, enhance readability, and make your code more modular. 1. Defining a Function To define a function, you use the def keyword followed by the function name, parentheses, and … Read more

Lists and list methods What Are Lists in Python? A list is a built-in data structure in Python that is used to store multiple items in a single variable. Lists are ordered, mutable, and can contain elements of mixed data types (strings, numbers, booleans, other lists, etc.). List Syntax my_list = [1, 2, 3, “hello”, … Read more

if, elif, and else statements These statements let your program make decisions based on conditions — they’re the core of control flow in Python. Basic Syntax if condition: # code block if condition is True elif another_condition: # code block if elif is True else: # code block if none are True Each condition is … Read more

Variables and Naming Conventions What is a Variable? A variable is a name that stores a value. Think of it as a labeled box where you can put data and use it later in your code. x = 5 name = “Alice” is_logged_in = True You use the = symbol (assignment operator) to assign a … Read more

What is Python and why use it? What is Python and Why Use It? What is Python? Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language that is easy to read, write, and learn. It was created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. Today, it’s one of the most popular programming languages in the … Read more

String methods and formatting What Is a String? A string is an immutable sequence of characters used to represent text in Python. Strings are enclosed in single quotes ‘…’, double quotes “…”, or triple quotes ”’…”’/”””…””” for multi-line strings. greeting = “Hello, world!” Common String Methods String methods are built-in functions you can use to … Read more

Reading and writing files What Is File Handling? File handling lets you read from, write to, and modify files stored on your computer. Python uses the built-in open() function to interact with files. Opening a File file = open(“example.txt”, “mode”) Modes: Mode Description ‘r’ Read (default mode) ‘w’ Write (overwrites existing file) ‘a’ Append to … Read more

Try, Except, Else, Finally What Is Exception Handling? In Python, exceptions occur when an error disrupts the normal flow of a program (like dividing by zero or opening a non-existent file). Instead of crashing, you can catch and handle these errors using try and except. Basic Syntax try: # Code that might raise an exception … Read more

Classes and objects What Are Classes and Objects? A class is a blueprint for creating objects — a way to bundle data and functionality together. An object is an instance of a class, representing a specific implementation of that blueprint. Defining a Class class Dog: def __init__(self, name, breed): self.name = name # attribute self.breed … Read more

Importing modules What Is a Module? A module is a file containing Python definitions and statements, such as functions, variables, and classes. Modules allow you to logically organize your Python code by grouping related functions, classes, and variables into separate files. This way, you can reuse code across multiple programs. How to Import a Module … Read more

List comprehensions (advanced) List comprehensions are a powerful and expressive way to create lists in Python using a single line of code. While basic list comprehensions handle simple transformations, advanced list comprehensions allow for more complex logic, including conditional filtering, nested loops, and function application. Basic Structure (Recap) [expression for item in iterable if condition] … Read more

Requests, Pandas, Matplotlib, etc. Popular Python Libraries – Detailed Overview Python has a rich ecosystem of libraries that simplify everything from web requests to data manipulation and visualization. Here’s a breakdown of some of the most widely used libraries: requests, pandas, matplotlib, and more. 1. Requests – HTTP for Humans The requests library is a … Read more

Introduction to frameworks: A framework in Python is a collection of pre-written code and tools that provides a structured foundation for building applications, allowing developers to focus more on functionality and less on repetitive setup. Frameworks speed up development, enforce best practices, and reduce errors. Why Learn Frameworks? Faster development with built-in tools Promotes code … Read more